Epictetus, born about 50, died between 125 and 130 AD, was a greek slave before becoming a philosopher. Epictetus is not his proper name: épiktétos meant, in Greek, slave, servant. Epictetus taught the Stoic doctrine in Rome and had to emigrate in Epirus, at Nicopolis, where he attracted many disciples, expressing a real lifestyle. One of his disciples, Arrian of Nicomedia, received his teaching, and published eight books forming the Enchiridion (also called The HandBook).
As remarkable of a text the Enchiridion is, being one of the canonical texts of Stoic philosophy, and one of the most important ancient documents that we are fortunate to have access to, the story of its creator is equally as impressive. Epictetus rose to become one of the most important Stoic philosophers, but the path to arrive at this accomplishment was fraught with difficulty.
He grew up as a slave to a wealthy man, who allowed him to study philosophy yet certain accounts argue that it was his master who crippled Epictetus at a young age. Luckily, when he was 33 years old, Epictetus was freed, and taught philosophy in Rome until again, a powerful person would intervene, this time the Roman emperor Domitius, who banished all philosophers from Rome, including Epictetus. It was then that Epictetus would start his school and teach classes which would become the basis of the Enchiridion.
As a respected teacher, Epictetus drew praise from some of the most respected scholars. Origen, an early Christian philosopher, said that Epictetus was even more popular than Plato had been, and one of the teachers of Marcus Aurelius, Herodes Atticus, thought Epictetus was ‘the greatest of Stoics’. Marcus himself would be loaned a copy of Epictetus and thank his mentor Junius Rusticus in Meditations for doing so.
Despite his impressive pedigree, Epictetus lived a simple and humble life. He taught that philosophy is first and foremost a way of life, and only secondly, discussions of why we should live that way. His teachings stress above all that we should accept unconditionally anything that is outside of our sphere of control. What might come as a surprise is that Epictetus did not leave any writing of his own, rather, it was his student Arrian, who wrote down his words for him, just like how Plato wrote down the dialogues of Socrates. This is a common theme with the Stoics, who were doers and focused on living and embodying the philosophy. Marcus Aurelius himself never wrote anything, and we are lucky to have his private diary, which is now known as Meditations, to survive and make its way to us, just as we are lucky to have access to Epictetus’s lectures.
Analysis
Epictetus’s Enchiridion is an example of practical philosophy in the broadest meaning of the term: learning how to live a right and good life. “Philosophy” here is more like popular psychology or counseling than an academic discipline. The Greek term enkheiridion (meaning “knife” or “dagger”) later came to signify a manual or handbook (that is, something carried in the hands). The book was recorded by Epictetus’s follower Arrian (ca. 125 CE). Structurally, it was originally organized quite loosely, but in the sixth century, Simplicius divided it into four parts, thus giving the book its final form and thematic composition.
Though a Stoic himself, Epictetus differs from the early Stoics in that he aims his moral handbook at situations of daily routine, giving practical counsel rather than picturing an absolute image of a wise man. His instruction is addressed to unsophisticated learners who are far from the public arena from which he calls his readers to depart and to lead a quite and unnoticeable life.
Two ideas that are significant for the later ethics are clearly seen in Enchiridion. First, the idea of vocation, which is presented by means of the image of an actor:
Remember that thou art an actor in a play of such a kind as the teacher (author) may choose; if short, of a short one; if long, of a long one: if he wishes you to act the part of a poor man, see that you act the part naturally; if the part of a lame man, of a magistrate, of a private person, (do the same). For this is your duty, to act well the part that is given to you; but to select the part, belongs to another.
Hence, the second idea: the world is a theater. However, there is one important divergence from the Renaissance function of this image. In the context of the Renaissance, the key is a possibility of the change of the masks. We are actors, and thus we perform in various roles. We are not identical to the parts we play.
Summary
In short, Enchiridion is a concentrated collection of Epictetus’s wisest teachings and contains all the fundamentals of his philosophy. It is a guiding text and required reading for students of Stoic philosophy.
The book focuses on the foundational Stoic principles, particularly that of not being concerned with what is out of your control. Epictetus teaches that we should have no desires or aversions guided by external events, ever – for many, adopting the teachings of Enchiridion, as with Stoicism in general, means a radical shift in how we view and interact with the world. We would only find true value in acting virtuously and accepting everything that happens to us, and even accepting everything that happens in the entire world.
This book addresses primarily those who seek to become philosophers, which to Epictetus, means those who practice a certain way of life, not people who talk about philosophical theories. When Epictetus speaks of the difference between philosophers, who value only what comes from within, and the vulgar, who chase after and are affected by external things, remember that almost all of us are “the vulgar” by his definition. We base our happiness on the world around us. This is the default psychological state for humans. But we can become philosophers if we so choose, and what we learn in Enchiridion will help us along that path.
Some of the most important lessons from the book are:
- Focus on your own actions
We control only our own actions and perceptions. If we focus on our own actions, rather than anything that depends on the actions of others or any other circumstance out of our direct control, we will be free.
We are slaves when we want something that only someone else, or some circumstance, can give us, because then we are dependent on an external for happiness and must act in a certain way to be happy. Epictetus teaches us to simplify what we are concerned with and not be emotionally affected by what happens in this massive world, where we have power over nothing besides what we ourselves do. If something bad happens, it should not upset you unless you did it.
- Character is key
Living virtuously is one of the only things that should not be viewed with indifference. For the Stoics, character – and virtue – is everything.
Epictetus believed that we should do what is right and never be concerned if someone else does not approve of a virtuous action. You should remain indifferent to being spoken of negatively and never let another person control you with their criticism by forcing you to react.
Epictetus preached self-control – resisting temptation is often more satisfying than indulging in it.
We shouldn’t get too into entertainments or idle discussion about popular topics so as not to be caught up in trivial things. (Entertainment and mass politics is often like Plato’s cave allegory; most people are watching the moving shadows on the wall. Don’t be like that.)
He advises that we not talk about ourselves too much, because others might not enjoy it as much as we do. Epictetus also advises against participating in rude and vulgar conversation and making it clear to others that you disapprove of such talk. (For example, gossip and discussions which sexually objectify women).
- Go with the flow
A man who goes into a quickly-flowing river and attempts to swim upstream will get tired quickly and make little forward progress. Life is just like such a river and wishing and working against what happens to us is futile. Epictetus is not advising that we just let anything happen. Rather, Enchiridion is about acting according to virtue a few basic interests, and not being disturbed if any of our plans go awry or we encounter misfortune. Pursuing goals that we find meaningful and being ready to let them go at a moment’s notice if we must are not mutually exclusive.
There are few things in life that we truly need. As for the rest, we should be prepared to lose them, and it is best for us to be happy even if we aren’t getting what we want. Epictetus says we should remember that everything we are given by life will be taken from us at some point and we should not grieve when we lose things. Nothing in this life is ours to keep.
Lessons
The main takeaway from Enchiridion is that events outside of our control should not disturb us in the slightest. The first step is to stop seeing them as misfortunes. To do so, use the Epictetus method, and consider whether the misfortune is your own action, or involves the results of the actions of others or of nature. If it is not your own action, you do not control it. In every such case, you must firmly tell yourself that it does not matter. For this to change your thinking process you must do it every time, so have reminders handy. Repetition is key.
A key lesson in Enchiridion, and a crucial part of reaching Stoic-style enlightenment, is limiting your desires and aversions. Wanting things to go a certain way will often lead to disappointment, which leads to being upset with the cause of that disappointment, which is nature. If you are disappointed with an outcome, you are not accepting the course of nature. To implement this in your life, don’t expect and pin your hopes on any specific outcome. When reflecting on future possibilities, remember that you will be fine no matter what happens, as long as you do not allow your character to be corrupted.
Finally, Epictetus teaches that we can’t have both a worldly life based on external satisfactions and a philosophical life where happiness comes from within. We must dedicate ourselves entirely to denying the appearances of things which seem good or bad but are out of our control.
The Great Books 
The Enchiridion is the bridge between the old radical schools of Stoicism in the tradition of Zeno of Citium which taught to deny desire and defeat emotion to achieve ‘eudaimonia’ (excellence in temper) and the late era Stoicism which teaches us not to defeat emotion and desire but simply not to let it dominate prudent judgments, decisions and actions.
Epictetus’ Stoic philosophy is a practical philosophy for life that focuses on understanding what causes us grief in our life and then detaching ourselves from that grief; removing from our lives unnecessary pains. The Enchiridion offers insightful and straightforward wisdom on how to endure misfortune by developing character and clear judgment by training ourselves in the Socratic lifestyle.
A Stoic looks beyond silly and proud displays of nationalism and instead accepts everyone for what they are, while striving to attain righteousness within himself. Stoics were the first philosophers to detest slavery. For Epictetus slavery is a thing which only occurs in the mind, when we allow ourselves to become a slave mentally. In fact all misfortunes are illusory things which only become misfortunate when we define them as being such. The core of the Stoic philosophy of the Enchiridion is realizing that nothing bad can happen to us, that we have no control over external things, and can only be concerned with controlling our own actions, decisions and judgments.
If we are not in control ourselves, we are a slave. For Epictetus, who was a slave before being a Roman-era Socrates, slavery is a mindset. We can maintain our dignity, charm, cheerfulness and character in the face of any disaster. He offers a interesting proposition: surely we would be angered if someone tried to control our body like a puppet, so why do we so easily hand our mind over to others when we are angered, in love or jealous? For Epictetus everything must be accounted for – and there is no physical circumstance, including death, which is unfortunate.
When we understand the innate nature of things, we can begin to avoid having our mind disturbed when they are changed or destroyed, for change is the only persistent nature of existence. How can we be disturbed when our favourite jug is destroyed, Epictetus proposes, if it is simply a piece of clay that we had no control over in the first place? We have control over nothing external, even our own bodies and immediate possessions. We only have control over our judgments, actions, decisions and how we decide to temper our lives with reason and logic. Agony occurs when we attempt to control what is not within our power to control (anything external to the mind) or when we expect external things to act in certain ways. We can only expect ourselves to act in a certain fashion.
Epictetus even says that we should not be disturbed when our wife or child dies – the person hasn’t died, just the body, something we have no true control over. We have to evaluate why exactly we are being disturbed: because we will miss what they brought to our lives OR because they have gone to glory? The former is a greedy and irrational judgment, the latter should bring us no disturbance, but only joy, in the passing of the body and its rejoining of nature.
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Here’s my top 10 Epictetus Principles:
Principle One:
There are things in life that we can control, and those that we cannot. We can control our opinions, our pursuits, our desires, and our aversions; in short whatever we think and do. We cannot control what other people think and do. Neither can we control what kind of body we are born with.
Principle Five:
People are disturbed by their opinion of what happens, not by the happening itself. The world has no fixed reality. It is our belief system that determines how we think about the world. We interpret the world through the lens of our beliefs.
Principle Eight:
Recognise that it is unreasonable, if not foolish, to expect things to always happen the way you wish. In truth, the world does not care about your wishes or your convenience.
Principle Twenty:
When someone provokes or insults you, do not be hasty in your reaction. Remember that it is not what is said or done that makes you react; it is really your opinion of these things that is the underlying cause of your reactions. You are provoking yourself by believing this is the correct cause of action.
Principle Twenty Five:
Do you notice others getting preferential treatment? If being treated this way is good, then be happy for them that they are getting something good. If it is not good, then be glad that you have avoided it.
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Principle Twenty Nine:
Always consider the likely consequences of your actions. There is a cause and effect linkage between everything that happens, though many are not sufficiently aware of them to notice. Train yourself to notice.
Principle Thirty One:
Come to accept that there is a perfection to Nature that is beyond the comprehension of most mortals, though awareness of it can be cultivated by those on the spiritual path. Acceptance of this means you will never be resentful at what Nature sends your way, nor will you accuse Nature of neglecting you.
Principle Thirty Five:
If you have a clear conviction that a particular course of action is the right thing to do, then you should do it, even if there is the possibility that others will misinterpret your actions and criticise or condemn you for it.
Principle Thirty Seven:
If you over reach your capabilities and pretend to be someone or something that you are not, then you have created a caricature of yourself that you show the world. The person you really are is the only figure that you can honestly show the world.
Principle Fifty:
Whatever code of moral conduct you have devised for yourself, live by it as though it really is law. This moment, right now, decide you are worthy of living as a mature adult who takes responsibility and works hard to improve themselves. Let whatever appears to you to be your highest ideal become an inviolable law to you.
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